HOLY BIBLE: 2011

[edit] Church beginnings

[edit] Origins

This detail of a fresco (1481–82) by Pietro Perugino in the Sistine chapel shows Jesus giving the keys of heaven to Saint Peter.

Catholic tradition holds that the Catholic Church was founded by Jesus Christ. The New Testament records Jesus' activities and teaching, his appointment of the twelve Apostles, and his instructions to them to continue his work.^[7]^[8] The Catholic Church teaches that the coming of the Holy Spirit upon the apostles, in an event known as Pentecost, signaled the beginning of the public ministry of the Church.^[9] While there is no particular narrative of Peter being "consecrated by Jesus," and then by "Peter traveling to Rome founding a church there" in Church tradition, this came to be the Catholic view. Peter is also thought to be Rome's first bishop and the consecrator of Linus as its next bishop, thus starting the line which includes the current pontiff, Pope Benedict XVI. This view is often repeated in the Catholic Church.^[10] The narratives of the appointment of the twelve Apostles and the appointing of Matthias as an Apostle are both found directly in the Scriptures.
Exactly when Christians first appeared in Rome is difficult to determine, see Godfearers and Proselytes for the historical background. The Acts of the Apostles claims that the Jewish Christian couple Priscilla and Aquila had recently come from Rome to Corinth when, in about the year 50, Paul reached Corinth,^[11] indicating that Christianity in Rome had preceded Paul. While the church in Rome was already flourishing when Paul wrote his Epistle to the Romans to them from Corinth, about AD 57,^[12] he greets some fifty people in Rome by name,^[13] but not Peter whom he knew. There is also no mention of Peter in Rome later during Paul's two year stay there in chapter 28 of Acts, about AD 60-62. Church historians consistently consider Peter and Paul to have been martyred under the reign of Nero,^[14]^[15]^[16] in AD 64 such as after the Great Fire of Rome which, according to Tacitus, Nero blamed on the Christians.^[17]^[18] The tradition that the See of Rome was founded as an organized Christian community by Peter and Paul and that its episcopate owes to them its origin can be traced back only as the second-century, with Irenaeus,^[19] but there is no conclusive evidence, scripturally, historically or chronologically, that Peter was in fact the Bishop of Rome. Irenaeus does not say that either Peter or Paul was "bishop" of the Church in Rome, and some historians have questioned whether Peter spent much time in Rome before his martyrdom.^[20] Oscar Cullmann sharply rejected the claim that Peter began the papal succession,^[21] and concludes that while Peter was the original head of the apostles, Peter was not the founder of any visible church succession.^[21]^[22]
Conditions in the Roman Empire facilitated the spread of new ideas. The empire's well-defined network of roads and waterways allowed for easier travel, while the Pax Romana made it safe to travel from one region to another. The government had encouraged inhabitants, especially those in urban areas, to learn Greek, and the common language allowed ideas to be more easily expressed and understood.^[23] Jesus's apostles gained converts in Jewish communities around the Mediterranean Sea,^[24] and over 40 Christian communities had been established by 100.^[25] Although most of these were in the Roman Empire, notable Christian communities were also established in Armenia, Iran and along the Indian Malabar Coast.^[26]^[27] The new religion was most successful in urban areas, spreading first among slaves and people of low social standing, and then among aristocratic women.^[28]
At first, Christians continued to worship alongside Jewish believers, which historians refer to as Jewish Christianity, but within twenty years of Jesus's death, Sunday was being regarded as the primary day of worship.^[29] As preachers such as Paul of Tarsus began converting Gentiles, Christianity began growing away from Jewish practices^[24] to establish itself as a separate religion,^[30] though the issue of Paul of Tarsus and Judaism is still debated today. To resolve doctrinal differences among the competing factions within the Church, in or around the year 50, the apostles convened the first Church council, the Council of Jerusalem. This council affirmed that Gentiles could become Christians without adopting all of the Mosaic Law.^[31] Growing tensions soon led to a starker separation that was virtually complete by the time Christians refused to join in the Bar Khokba Jewish revolt of 132,^[32] however some groups of Christians retained elements of Jewish practice.^[33]
The early Christian Church was very loosely organized, resulting in diverse interpretations of Christian beliefs.^[34] In part to ensure a greater consistency in their teachings, by the end of the 2nd century Christian communities had evolved a more structured hierarchy, with a central bishop having authority over the clergy in his city,^[35] leading to the development of the Metropolitan bishop. The organization of the Church began to mimic that of the Empire; bishops in politically important cities exerted greater authority over bishops in nearby cities.^[36] The churches in Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome held the highest positions.^[37] Beginning in the 2nd century, bishops often congregated in regional synods to resolve doctrinal and policy issues.^[31] Duffy claims that by the 3rd century, the bishop of Rome began to act as a court of appeals for problems that other bishops could not resolve.^[38]
Doctrine was further refined by a series of influential theologians and teachers, known collectively as the Church Fathers.^[39] From the year 100 onward, proto-orthodox teachers like Ignatius of Antioch and Irenaeus defined Catholic teaching in stark opposition to other things, such as Gnosticism.^[40] In the first few centuries of its existence, the Church formed its teachings and traditions into a systematic whole under the influence of theological apologists such as Pope Clement I, Justin Martyr and Augustine of Hippo.^[41]

[edit] Persecutions

Unlike most religions in the Roman Empire, Christianity required its adherents to renounce all other gods, a practice adopted from Judaism, see Idolatry. Christians' refusal to join pagan celebrations meant they were unable to participate in much of public life, which caused non-Christians–including government authorities–to fear that the Christians were angering the gods and thereby threatening the peace and prosperity of the Empire. In addition, the peculiar intimacy of Christian society and its secrecy about its religious practices spawned rumors that Christians were guilty of incest and cannibalism; the resulting persecutions, although usually local and sporadic, were a defining feature of Christian self-understanding until Christianity was legalized in the 4th century.^[42]^[43] A series of more centrally organized persecutions of Christians emerged in the late 3rd century, when emperors decreed that the Empire's military, political, and economic crises were caused by angry gods. All residents were ordered to give sacrifices or be punished.^[44] Jews were exempted as long as they paid the Jewish Tax. A small number of Christians were executed;^[45] others fled^[46] or renounced their beliefs. Disagreements over what role, if any, these apostates should have in the Church led to the Donatist and Novatianist schisms.^[47] Relations between the Church and the Empire were not consistent: " Tiberius wanted to have Christ placed in the Pantheon and refused first of all to persecute the Christians. Later on his attitude changed. [-] How are we to explain the fact that men like Trajan and above all Marcus Aurelius should have so relentlessly persecuted the Christians? On the other hand Commodus and other villainous emperors rather favoured them."^[48] In spite of these persecutions, evangelization efforts persisted, leading to the Edict of Milan which legalized Christianity in 313.^[49] By 380, Christianity had become the state religion of the Roman Empire.^[50] Religious philosopher Simone Weil : " By the time of Constantine, the state of apocalyptic expectation must have worn rather thin. [The imminent coming of Christ, expectation of the Last Day - constituted 'a very great social danger.'] Besides , the spirit of the old law, so widely separated from all mysticism, was not so very different from the Roman spirit itself. Rome could come to terms with the God of Hosts." ^[51]

[edit] Late antiquity

Main article: History of late ancient Christianity

Emperor Constantine I established the rights of the Church in the year 315

When Constantine became emperor of the Western Roman Empire in 312, he attributed his victory to the Christian God. Many soldiers in his army were Christians, and his army was his base of power. With Licinius, (Eastern Roman emperor), he issued the Edict of Milan which mandated toleration of all religions in the empire. The edict had little effect on the attitudes of the people.^[52] New laws were crafted to codify some Christian beliefs and practices.^{[Note 1]}^[53] Constantine's biggest effect on Christianity was his patronage. He gave large gifts of land and money to the Church and offered tax exemptions and other special legal status to Church property and personnel.^[54] These gifts and later ones combined to make the Church the largest landowner in the West by the 6th century.^[55] Many of these gifts were funded through severe taxation of pagan cults.^[54] Some pagan cults were forced to disband for lack of funds; when this happened the Church took over the cult's previous role of caring for the poor.^[56] In a reflection of their increased standing in the Empire, clergy began to adopt the dress of the royal household, including the cope.^[57]
During Constantine's reign, approximately half of those who identified themselves as Christian did not subscribe to the mainstream version of the faith.^[58] Constantine feared that disunity would displease God and lead to trouble for the Empire, so he took military and judicial measures to eliminate some sects.^[59] To resolve other disputes, Constantine began the practice of calling ecumenical councils to determine binding interpretations of Church doctrine.^[60]
Decisions made at the Council of Nicea (325) about the divinity of Christ led to a schism; the new religion, Arianism flourished outside the Roman Empire.^[61] Partially to distinguish themelves from Arians, Catholic devotion to Mary became more prominent. This led to further schisms.^[62]^[63]
In 380, mainstream Christianity–as opposed to Arianism–became the official religion of the Roman Empire.^[64] Christianity became more associated with the Empire, resulting in persecution for Christians living outside of the empire, as their rulers feared Christians would revolt in favor of the Emperor.^[65] In 385, this new legal authority of the Church resulted in the first use of capital punishment being pronounced as a sentence upon a Christian 'heretic', namely Priscillian. ^[66]
During this period, the Bible as it has come down to the 21st century was first officially laid out in Church Councils or Synods through the process of official 'canonization'. Prior to these Councils or Synods, the Bible had already reached a form that was nearly identical to the form in which it is now found. According to some accounts, in 382 the Council of Rome first officially recognized the Biblical canon, listing the accepted books of the Old and New Testament, and in 391 the Vulgate Latin translation of the Bible was made. ^[67] Other accounts list the Council of Carthage of 397 as the Council that finalized the Biblical canon as it is known today. ^[68] The Council of Ephesus in 431 clarified the nature of Jesus' incarnation, declaring that he was both fully man and fully God. ^[69] Two decades later, the Council of Chalcedon solidified Roman papal primacy which added to continuing breakdown in relations between Rome and Constantinople, the see of the Eastern Church. ^[70] Also sparked were the Monophysite disagreements over the precise nature of the incarnation of Jesus which led to the first of the various Oriental Orthodox Churches breaking away from the Catholic Church.^[71]

[edit] Middle Ages

[edit] Early Middle Ages

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, the Catholic faith competed with Arianism for the conversion of the barbarian tribes.^[72] The 496 conversion of Clovis I, pagan king of the Franks, saw the beginning of a steady rise of the faith in the West.^[73]

Saint Benedict, father of Western monasticism and author of Rule of St Benedict. Detail from fresco by Fra Angelico, c. 1437–46.

In 530, Saint Benedict wrote his Rule of St Benedict as a practical guide for monastic community life. Its message spread to monasteries throughout Europe.^[74] Monasteries became major conduits of civilization, preserving craft and artistic skills while maintaining intellectual culture within their schools, scriptoria and libraries. They functioned as agricultural, economic and production centers as well as a focus for spiritual life.^[75] During this period the Visigoths and Lombards moved away from Arianism for Catholicism.^[73] Pope Gregory the Great played a notable role in these conversions and dramatically reformed the ecclesiastical structures and administration which then launched renewed missionary efforts.^[76] Missionaries such as Augustine of Canterbury, who was sent from Rome to begin the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons, and, coming the other way in the Hiberno-Scottish mission, Saints Colombanus, Boniface, Willibrord, Ansgar and many others took Christianity into northern Europe and spread Catholicism among the Germanic, and Slavic peoples, and reached the Vikings and other Scandinavians in later centuries.^[77] The Synod of Whitby of 664, though not as decisive as sometimes claimed, was an important moment in the reintegration of the Celtic Church of the British Isles into the Roman hierarchy, after having been effectively cut off from contact with Rome by the pagan invaders.
In the early 700s, Byzantine iconoclasm became a major source of conflict between the Eastern and Western parts of the Church. Byzantine emperors forbade the creation and veneration of religious images, as violations of the Ten Commandments. Other major religions in the East such as Judaism and Islam had similar prohibitions. Pope Gregory III vehemently disagreed ^[78] A new Empress Irene siding with the pope, called for an Ecumenical Council In 787, the fathers of the Second Council of Nicaea "warmly received the papal delegates and his message" ,^[79] At the conclusion, 300 bishops, who were led by the representatives of Pope Hadrian I.^[80] "adopted the Pope's teaching" ,^[79] in favor of icons.
With the coronation of Charlemagne by Pope Leo III in 800, his new title as Patricius Romanorum, and the handing over of the keys to the Tomb of Saint Peter, the papacy had acquired a new protector in the West. This freed the pontiffs to some degree from the power of the emperor in Constantinople but also led to a schism, because the emperors and patriarchs of Constantinople interpreted themselves as the true descendants of the Roman Empire dating back to the beginnings of the Church.^[81] Pope Nicholas I had refused to recognize Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople ,who in turn had attacked the pope as a heretic, because he kept the filioque in the creed, which referred to the Holy Spirit emanating from God the Father and the Son. The papacy was strengthened through this new alliance, which in the long term created a new problem for the Popes, when in the Investiture Controversy succeeding emperors sought to appoint bishops and even future popes.^[82]^[83] After the disintegration of the Charlemagne empire and repeated incursions of Islamic forces into Italy, the papacy, without any protection, entered a phase of major weakness.^[84]

[edit] High Middle Ages

Saint Thomas Aquinas carrying the whole Church with his theology

The Cluniac reform of monasteries that began in 910 placed abbots under the direct control of the pope rather than the secular control of feudal lords, thus eliminating a major source of corruption. This sparked a great monastic renewal.^[85] Monasteries, convents and cathedrals still operated virtually all schools and libraries, and often functioned as credit establishments promoting economic growth.^[86]^[87] After 1100, some older cathedral schools split into lower grammar schools and higher schools for advanced learning. First in Bologna, then at Paris and Oxford, many of these higher schools developed into universities and became the direct ancestors of modern Western institutions of learning.^[88] It was here where notable theologians worked to explain the connection between human experience and faith.^[89] The most notable of these theologians, Thomas Aquinas, produced Summa Theologica, a key intellectual achievement in its synthesis of Aristotelian thought and the Gospel.^[89] Monastic contributions to western society included the teaching of metallurgy, the introduction of new crops, the invention of musical notation and the creation and preservation of literature.^[88]
During the 11th century, the East–West schism permanently divided Christianity.^[90] It arose over a dispute on whether Constantinople or Rome held jurisdiction over the church in Sicily and led to mutual excommunications in 1054.^[90] The Western (Latin) branch of Christianity has since become known as the Catholic Church, while the Eastern (Greek) branch became known as the Orthodox Church.^[91]^[92] The Second Council of Lyon (1274) and the Council of Florence (1439) both failed to heal the schism.^[93] Some Eastern churches have since reunited with the Catholic Church, and others claim never to have been out of communion with the pope.^[92]^[94] Officially, the two churches remain in schism, although excommunications were mutually lifted in 1965.^[95]
The 11th century saw the Investiture Controversy between Emperor and Pope over the right to make church appointments, the first major phase of the struggle between Church and state in medieval Europe. The Papacy were the initial victors, but as Italians divided between Guelphs and Ghibellines in factions that were often passed down through families or states until the end of the Middle Ages, the dispute gradually weakened the Papacy, not least by drawing it into politics. The Church also attempted to control, or exact a price for, most marriages among the great by prohibiting, in 1059, marriages involving consanguinity (blood kin) and affinity (kin by marriage) to the seventh degree of relationship. Under these rules, almost all great marriages required a dispensation. The rules were relaxed to the fourth degree in 1215 (now only the first degree is prohibited by the Church - a man cannot marry his stepdaughter, for example).

Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont (1095), where he preached the First Crusade; later manuscript illumination of c. 1490

Pope Urban II launched the First Crusade in 1095 when he received an appeal from Byzantine emperor Alexius I to help ward off a Turkish invasion.^[96] Urban further believed that a Crusade might help bring about reconciliation with Eastern Christianity.^[97]^[98] Fueled by reports of Muslim atrocities against Christians,^[99] the series of military campaigns known as the Crusades began in 1096. They were intended to return the Holy Land to Christian control. The goal was not permanently realized, and episodes of brutality committed by the armies of both sides left a legacy of mutual distrust between Muslims and Western and Eastern Christians.^[100] The sack of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade left Eastern Christians embittered, despite the fact that Pope Innocent III had expressly forbidden any such attack.^[101] In 2001, Pope John Paul II apologized to the Orthodox Christians for the sins of Catholics including the sacking of Constantinople in 1204.^[102]
Two new orders of architecture emerged from the Church of this era. The earlier Romanesque style combined massive walls, rounded arches and ceilings of masonry. To compensate for the absence of large windows, interiors were brightly painted with scenes from the Bible and the lives of the saints. Later, the Basilique Saint-Denis marked a new trend in cathedral building when it utilized Gothic architecture.^[103] This style, with its large windows and high, pointed arches, improved lighting and geometric harmony in a manner that was intended to direct the worshiper's mind to God who "orders all things".^[103] In other developments, the 12th century saw the founding of eight new monastic orders, many of them functioning as Military Knights of the Crusades.^[104] Cistercian monk Bernard of Clairvaux exerted great influence over the new orders and produced reforms to ensure purity of purpose.^[104] His influence led Pope Alexander III to begin reforms that would lead to the establishment of canon law.^[105] In the following century, new mendicant orders were founded by Francis of Assisi and Dominic de Guzmán which brought consecrated religious life into urban settings.^[106]
12th century France witnessed the growth of Catharism in Languedoc. It was in connection with the struggle against this heresy that the Inquisition originated. After the Cathars were accused of murdering a papal legate in 1208, Pope Innocent III declared the Albigensian Crusade.^[107] Abuses committed during the crusade caused Innocent III to informally institute the first papal inquisition to prevent future massacres and root out the remaining Cathars.^[108]^[109] Formalized under Gregory IX, this Medieval inquisition executed an average of three people per year for heresy at its height.^[109]^[110] Over time, other inquisitions were launched by the Church or secular rulers to prosecute heretics, to respond to the threat of Moorish invasion or for political purposes.^[111] The accused were encouraged to recant their heresy and those who did not could be punished by penance, fines, imprisonment, torture or execution by burning.^[111]^[112]

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A growing sense of church-state conflicts marked the 14th century. To escape instability in Rome, Clement V in 1309 became the first of seven popes to reside in the fortified city of Avignon in southern France^[113] during a period known as the Avignon Papacy. The papacy returned to Rome in 1378 at the urging of Catherine of Siena and others who felt the See of Peter should be in the Roman church.^[114]^[115] With the death of Pope Gregory XI later that year, the papal election was disputed between supporters of Italian and French-backed candidates leading to the Western schism. For 38 years, separate claimants to the papal throne sat in Rome and Avignon. Efforts at resolution further complicated the issue when a third compromise pope was elected in 1409.^[116] The matter was finally resolved in 1417 at the Council of Constance where the cardinals called upon all three claimants to the papal throne to resign, and held a new election naming Martin V pope.^[116]

[edit] Renaissance and reforms

[edit] Discoveries and Missionaries

Main articles: Counter-Reformation and Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery

Through the late 15th and early 16th centuries, European missionaries and explorers spread Catholicism to the Americas, Asia, Africa and Oceania. Pope Alexander VI, in the papal bull Inter caetera, awarded colonial rights over most of the newly discovered lands to Spain and Portugal.^[117] Under the patronato system, state authorities controlled clerical appointments and no direct contact was allowed with the Vatican.^[118] On December 1511, the Dominican friar Antonio de Montesinos openly rebuked the Spanish authorities governing Hispaniola for their mistreatment of the American natives, telling them "... you are in mortal sin ... for the cruelty and tyranny you use in dealing with these innocent people".^[119]^[120]^[121] King Ferdinand enacted the Laws of Burgos and Valladolid in response. Enforcement was lax, and while some blame the Church for not doing enough to liberate the Indians, others point to the Church as the only voice raised on behalf of indigenous peoples.^[122] The issue resulted in a crisis of conscience in 16th-century Spain.^[120]^[121] An outpouring of self-criticism and philosophical reflection among Catholic theologians, most notably Francisco de Vitoria, led to debate on the nature of human rights^[121] and the birth of modern international law.^[123]^[124]
In 1521, through the leadership and preaching of the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, the first Catholics were baptized in what became the first Christian nation in Southeast Asia, the Philippines.^[125] The following year, Franciscan missionaries arrived in what is now Mexico, and sought to convert the Indians and to provide for their well-being by establishing schools and hospitals. They taught the Indians better farming methods, and easier ways of weaving and making pottery. Because some people questioned whether the Indians were truly human and deserved baptism, Pope Paul III in the papal bull Veritas Ipsa or Sublimis Deus (1537) confirmed that the Indians were deserving people.^[126]^[127] Afterward, the conversion effort gained momentum.^[128] Over the next 150 years, the missions expanded into southwestern North America.^[129] The native people were legally defined as children, and priests took on a paternalistic role, often enforced with corporal punishment.^[130] Elsewhere, in India, Portuguese missionaries and the Spanish Jesuit Francis Xavier evangelized among non-Christians and a Christian community which claimed to have been established by Thomas the Apostle.^[131]

Whitby Abbey England, one of hundreds of European monasteries destroyed during the Reformation.

[edit] Renaissance Church

In Europe, the Renaissance marked a period of renewed interest in ancient and classical learning. It also brought a re-examination of accepted beliefs. Cathedrals and churches had long served as picture books and art galleries for millions of the uneducated. The stained glass windows, frescoes, statues, paintings and panels retold the stories of the saints and of biblical characters. The Church sponsored great Renaissance artists like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, who created some of the world's most famous artworks.^[132] The acceptance of humanism had its effects on the Church, which embraced it as well. In 1509, a well known scholar of the age, Erasmus, wrote The Praise of Folly, a work which captured a widely held unease about corruption in the Church.^[133] The Papacy itself was questioned by councilarism expressed in the councils of Constance and the Basel. Real reforms during these ecumenical councils and the Fifth Lateran Council were attempted several times but thwarted. They were seen as necessary but did not succeed in large measure because of internal feuds within the Church,^[134] ongoing conflicts with the Ottoman Empire and Saracenes ^[134] and the simony and nepotism practiced in the Renaissance Church of the 15th and early 16th centuries.^[135] As a result, rich, powerful and worldly men like Roderigo Borgia (Pope Alexander VI) were able to win election to the papacy.^[135]^[136]

[edit] Reformation Era wars

The Fifth Lateran Council issued some but only minor reforms in March of 1517. A few months later, on October 31, 1517, Martin Luther posted his Ninety-Five Theses in public, hoping to spark debate.^[137]^[138] His theses protested key points of Catholic doctrine as well as the sale of indulgences.^[137]^[138] Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin, and others also criticized Catholic teachings. These challenges, supported by powerful political forces in the region, developed into the Protestant Reformation.^[70]^[139] In Germany, the Reformation led to war between the Protestant Schmalkaldic League and the Catholic Emperor Charles V. The first nine-year war ended in 1555 but continued tensions produced a far graver conflict, the Thirty Years' War, which broke out in 1618.^[140] In France, a series of conflicts termed the French Wars of Religion was fought from 1562 to 1598 between the Huguenots and the forces of the French Catholic League. A series of popes sided with and became financial supporters of the Catholic League.^[141] This ended under Pope Clement VIII, who hesitantly accepted King Henry IV's 1598 Edict of Nantes, which granted civil and religious toleration to Protestants.^[140]^[141]

[edit] England

The English Reformation was ostensibly based on Henry VIII's desire for annulment of his marriage with Catherine of Aragon, and was initially more of a political, and later a theological dispute.^[142] The Acts of Supremacy made the English monarch head of the English church thereby establishing the Church of England. Then, beginning in 1536, some 825 monasteries throughout England, Wales and Ireland were dissolved and Catholic churches were confiscated.^[143]^[144] When he died in 1547 all monasteries, friaries, convents of nuns and shrines were destroyed or dissolved. ^[144]^[145] Mary I of England reunited the Church of England with Rome and, against the advice of the Spanish ambassador, persecuted Protestants during the Marian Persecutions.^[146]^[147] After some provocation, the following monarch, Elizabeth I enforced the Act of Supremacy. This prevented Catholics from becoming members of professions, holding public office, voting or educating their children.^[146]^[148] Executions of Catholics under Elizabeth I, who reigned much longer, then surpassed the Marian persecutions^[146] and persisted under subsequent English monarchs.^[149] Penal laws were also enacted in Ireland^[150] but were less effective than in England.^[146]^[151] In part because the Irish people associated Catholicism with nationhood and national identity, they resisted persistent English efforts to eliminate the Catholic Church.^[146]^[151]

Melk Abbey—adjoining Wachau Valley, Lower Austria—exemplifies the Baroque style.

[edit] Council of Trent

Historian Diarmaid MacCulloch, in his book The Reformation, A History noted that through all the slaughter of the Reformation era emerged the valuable concept of religious toleration and an improved Catholic Church^[152] which responded to doctrinal challenges and abuses highlighted by the Reformation at the Council of Trent (1545–1563). The council became the driving-force of the Counter-Reformation, and reaffirmed central Catholic doctrines such as transubstantiation, and the requirement for love and hope as well as faith to attain salvation.^[153] It also reformed many other areas of importance to the Church, most importantly by improving the education of the clergy and consolidating the central jurisdiction of the Roman Curia.^[6]^[153]^[154] The criticisms of the Reformation were among factors that sparked new religious orders including the Theatines, Barnabites and Jesuits, some of which became the great missionary orders of later years.^[155] Spiritual renewal and reform were inspired by many new saints like Teresa of Avila, Francis de Sales and Philip Neri whose writings spawned distinct schools of spirituality within the Church (Oratorians, Carmelites, Salesian), etc.^[156] Improvement to the education of the laity was another positive effect of the era, with a proliferation of secondary schools reinvigorating higher studies such as history, philosophy and theology.^[157] To popularize Counter-Reformation teachings, the Church encouraged the Baroque style in art, music and architecture. Baroque religious expression was stirring and emotional, created to stimulate religious fervor.^[158]
Elsewhere, Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier introduced Christianity to Japan, and by the end of the 16th century tens of thousands of Japanese followed Roman Catholicism. Church growth came to a halt in 1597 under the Shogun Toyotomi Hideyoshi who, in an effort to isolate the country from foreign influences, launched a severe persecution of Christians.^[159] Japanese were forbidden to leave the country and Europeans were forbidden to enter. Despite this, a minority Christian population survived into the 19th century.^[159]^[160]

[edit] Baroque, Enlightenment and revolutions

The Council of Trent generated a revival of religious life and Marian devotions in the Roman Catholic Church. During the Reformation, the Church had defended its Marian beliefs against Protestant views. At the same time, the Catholic world was engaged in ongoing Ottoman Wars in Europe against Turkey which were fought and won under the auspices of the Virgin Mary. The victory at Battle of Lepanto (1571) was accredited to her “and signified the beginning of a strong resurgence of Marian devotions, focusing especially on Mary, the Queen of Heaven and Earth and her powerful role as mediatrix of many graces”.^[161] The Colloquium Marianum, a elite group, and the Sodality of Our Lady based their activities on a virtuous life, free of cardinal sins.
Pope Paul V and Gregory XV ruled in 1617 and 1622 to be inadmissible to state, that the virgin was conceived non-immaculate.^{[clarification needed]} Alexander VII declared in 1661, that the soul of Mary was free from original sin. Pope Clement XI ordered the feast of the Immaculata for the whole Church in 1708. The feast of the Rosary was introduced in 1716, the feast of the Seven Sorrows in 1727. The Angelus prayer was strongly supported by Pope Benedict XIII in 1724 and by Pope Benedict XIV in 1742.^[162] Popular Marian piety was even more colourful and varied than ever before: Numerous Marian pilgrimages, Marian Salve devotions, new Marian litanies, Marian theatre plays, Marian hymns, Marian processions. Marian fraternities, today mostly defunct, had millions of members.^[163]

After centuries of French opposition, Pope Innocent XI was beatified by Pius XII in 1956

The Enlightenment constituted a new challenge of the Church. Unlike the Protestant Reformation, which questioned certain Christian doctrines, the enlightenment questioned Christianity as a whole. Generally, it elevated human reason above divine revelation and down-graded religious authorities such as the papacy based on it.^[164] Politically the Ottoman Empire continued as a major threat, advancing all the way to the city of Vienna. Parallel the Church attempted to fend of Gallicanism and Councilarism, ideologies which threatened the papacy and structure of the Church.^[165]
Toward the latter part of the 17th century, Blessed Pope Innocent XI viewed the increasing Turkish attacks against Europe, which were supported by France, as the major threat for the Church. He built a Polish-Austrian coalition for the Turkish defeat at Vienna in 1683. Scholars have called him a saintly pope because he reformed abuses by the Church, including simony, nepotism and the lavish papal expenditures that had caused him to inherit a papal debt of 50,000,000 scudi. By eliminating certain honorary posts and introducing new fiscal policies, Innocent XI was able to regain control of the church's finances.^[166] In France, the Church battled Jansenism and Gallicanism, which supported Councilarism, and rejected papal primacy, demanding special concessions for the Church in France. This weakened the Church's ability to respond to gallicanist thinkers such as Denis Diderot, who challenged fundamental doctrines of the Church.^[167]
In 1685 gallicanist King Louis XIV of France issued the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, ending a century of religious toleration.. France forced Catholic theologians to support councilarism and deny Papal infallibility. The king threatened Pope Innocent XI with a general council and a military take-over of the Papal state.^[168] The absolute French State used Gallicanism to gain control of virtually all major Church appointments as well as many of the Church's properties.^[166]^[169] State authority over the Church became popular in other countries as well. In Belgium and Germany, Gallicanism appeared in the form of Febronianism, which rejected papal pregoratives in an equal fashion.^[170] Emperor Joseph II of Austria (1780–1790) practiced Josephinism by regulating Church life, appointments and massive confiscation of Church properties.^[170]

[edit] Church in America

In the Americas, the Church expanded its missions but, until the 19th century, had to work under the Spanish and Portuguese governments and military.^[171] Junípero Serra, the Franciscan priest in charge of this effort, founded a series of missions which became important economic, political, and religious institutions.^[172] These missions brought grain, cattle and a new way of living to the Indian tribes of California. Overland routes were established from New Mexico that resulted in the colonization of San Francisco in 1776 and Los Angeles in 1781. However, by bringing Western civilization to the area, these missions and the Spanish government have been held responsible for wiping out nearly a third of the native population, primarily through disease.^[173] Only in the 19th century, after the breakdown of most Spanish and Portuguese colonies, was the Vatican able to take charge of Catholic missionary activities through its Propaganda Fide organization.^[174]
During this period the Church faced colonial abuses from the Portuguese and Spanish governments. In South America, the Jesuits protected native peoples from enslavement by establishing semi-independent settlements called reductions. Pope Gregory XVI, challenging Spanish and Portuguese sovereignty, appointed his own candidates as bishops in the colonies, condemned slavery and the slave trade in 1839 (papal bull In Supremo Apostolatus), and approved the ordination of native clergy in spite of government racism.^[175]

[edit] Jesuits in India

While Christianity in India has a tradition of Thomas establishing the faith there, the Jesuit Francis Xavier (1502–1552) began to introduce Catholic Christianity to India. Roberto de Nobili (1577–1656), a Tuscan Jesuit missionary to Southern India followed in his path. He pioneered (inculturation), adopting many Brahmin customs which were not, in his opinion, contrary to Christianity. He lived like a Brahmin, learned Sanskrit, and presented Christianity as a part of Indian beliefs, not identical with the controversial Portuguese culture of the colonialists. He permitted the use of all customs, which in his view did not directly contradict Christian teachings. By 1640 there were 40 000 Christians in Madura alone. In 1632, Pope Gregory XV gave permission for this approach. But strong anti-Jesuit sentiments in Portugal, France even in Rome resulted in a reversal, which signalled the end of the successful Catholic missions in India.^[176] On September 12, 1744, Benedict XIV forbade the so called Malabar rites in India, with the result, that leading Indian casts who wanted to adhere to their traditional cultures, turned away from the Catholic Church.^[177] Christianity started in the southern part of India from AD 52 onwards, when St. Thomas came to India.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Jesuits in China

Matteo Ricci (left) and Xu Guangqi (徐光啟) (right) in the Chinese edition of Euclid's Elements (幾何原本) published in 1607.

[edit] Jesuit existence

Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, Marquis of Pombal, "The Expulsion of the Jesuits" by Louis-Michel van Loo, 1766.

Throughout the inculturation controversy, the very existence of Jesuits were under attack in Portugal, Spain, France, and the Kingdom of Sicily. The inculturation controversy and the Jesuit support for the native Indians in Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina added fuel to growing criticism of the order, which seemed to symbolize the strength and independence of the Church. Defending the rights of native peoples in South America, hindered the efforts of European powers, espcecially Spain and Portugal to maintain absolute rule over their domains.^[182] Portugal's Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, Marquis of Pombal was the main enemy of the Jesuits. Pope Benedict XIV attempted to keep the Jesuits in existence without any changes: Sint ut sunt aut not sint, They must be the way they are or they will not be,.^[183] He went far to mollify Portuguese pride, even allowing the local Cardinal to wear a papal tiara and have his seminarians dressed like cardinals ^[184] In 1773, European rulers united to force Pope Clement XIV to dissolve the order.^[182] Several decades later Pius VII restored the Jesuits in the 1814 papal bull Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum.^[185]

[edit] French Revolution

The anti-clericalism of the French Revolution.^[186] saw direct attacks on the wealth of the Church and associated grievances led to the wholesale nationalisation of church property and attempts to establish a state-run church.^[187] Large numbers of priests refused to take an oath of compliance to the National Assembly, leading to the Church being outlawed and replaced by a new religion of the worship of "Reason".^[187] In this period, all monasteries were destroyed, 30,000 priests were exiled and hundreds more were killed.^[187] When Pope Pius VI sided against the revolution in the First Coalition, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Italy. The 82 year old pope was taken as a prisoner to France in February 1799 and died in Valence August 29, 1799 after six months of captivity. To win popular support for his rule, Napoleon re-established the Catholic Church in France through the Concordat of 1801.^[188] The end of the Napoleonic wars, signaled by the Congress of Vienna, brought Catholic revival and the return of the Papal States.^[189]

Church from the Indian settlement of San Ignacio Miní

[edit] Africa

At the end of the 19th century, Catholic missionaries followed colonial governments into Africa and built schools, hospitals, monasteries and churches.^[190]

[edit] Industrial age

[edit] First Vatican Council

Before the council, in 1854 Pope Pius IX with the support of the overwhelming majority of Roman Catholic Bishops, whom he had consulted between 1851–1853, proclaimed the dogma of the Immaculate Conception.^[191] Eight years earlier, in 1846, the Pope had granted the unanimous wish of the bishops from the United States, and declared the Immaculata the patron of the USA.^[192]
During First Vatican Council, some 108 council fathers requested to add the words “Immaculate Virgin” to the Hail Mary.^[193] Some fathers requested, the dogma of the Immaculate Conception to be included in the Creed of the Church, which was opposed by Pius IX ^[194] Many French Catholics wished the dogmatization of Papal infallibility and the assumption of Mary by the ecumenical council.^[195] During Vatican One, nine mariological petitions favoured a possible assumption dogma, which however was strongly opposed by some council fathers, especially from Germany. In 1870, the First Vatican Council affirmed the doctrine of papal infallibility when exercised in specifically defined pronouncements.^[196]^[197] Controversy over this and other issues resulted in a very small breakaway movement called the Old Catholic Church.^[198]

[edit] Social teachings

Main article: Catholic social teaching

The Church was slow to react to the growing industrialization and impoverishment of workers, trying first to remediate the situation with increased charity. In 1891 Pope Leo XIII issued Rerum Novarum in which the Church defined the dignity and rights of industrial workers.

The Industrial Revolution brought many concerns about the deteriorating working and living conditions of urban workers. Influenced by the German Bishop Wilhelm Emmanuel Freiherr von Ketteler, in 1891 Pope Leo XIII published the encyclical Rerum Novarum, which set in context Catholic social teaching in terms that rejected socialism but advocated the regulation of working conditions. Rerum Novarum argued for the establishment of a living wage and the right of workers to form trade unions.^[199]
Quadragesimo Anno was issued by Pope Pius XI, on 15 May 1931, 40 years after Rerum Novarum. Unlike Leo, who addressed the mainly condition of workers, Pius XI concentrated on the ethical implications of the social and economic order. He called for the reconstruction of the social order based on the principle of solidarity and subsidiarity.^[200] He noted major dangers for human freedom and dignity, arising from unrestrained capitalism and totalitarian communism.
The social teachings of Pope Pius XII repeat these teachings, and apply them in greater detail not only to workers and owners of capital, but also to other professions such as politicians, educators, house-wives, farmers bookkeepers, international organizations, and all aspects of life including the military. Going beyond Pius XI, he also defined social teachings in the areas of medicine, psychology, sport, TV, science, law and education. There is virtually no social issue, which Pius XII did not address and relate to the Christian faith. ^[201] He was called "the Pope of Technology, for his willingness and ability to examine the social implications of technological advances. The dominant concern was the continued rights and dignity of the individual. With the beginning of the space age at the end of his pontificate, Pius XII explored the social implications of space exploration and satellites on the social fabric of humanity asking for a new sense of community and solidarity in light of existing papal teachings on subsidiarity.^[202]

[edit] Mariology

Madonna and Child, by Filippo Lippi

Popes have always highlighted the inner link between the Virgin Mary as Mother of God and the full acceptance of Jesus Christ as Son of God.^[203]^[204] Since the 19th century, they were highly important for the development of mariology to explain the veneration of Mary through their decisions not only in the area of Marian beliefs (Mariology) but also Marian practices and devotions. Before the 19th century, Popes promulgated Marian veneration by authorizing new Marian feast days, prayers, initiatives, the acceptance and support of Marian congregations.^[205]^[206] Since the 19th century, Popes begin to use encyclicals more frequently. Thus Leo XIII, the Rosary Pope issued eleven Marian encyclicals. Recent Popes promulgated the veneration of the Blessed Virgin with two dogmas, Pius IX the Immaculate Conception in 1854 and the Assumption of Mary in 1950 by Pope Pius XII. Pius XII also promulgated the new feast Queenship of Mary celebrating Mary as Queen of Heaven and he introduced the first ever Marian year in 1954, a second one was proclaimed by John Paul II. Pius IX, Pius XI and Pius XII facilitated the veneration of Marian apparitions such as in Lourdes and Fátima. Later Popes such from John XXIII to Benedict XVI promoted the visit to Marian shrines (Benedict XVI in 2007 and 2008). The Second Vatican Council highlighted the importance of Marian veneration in Lumen Gentium. During the Council, Paul VI proclaimed Mary to be the Mother of the Church.

[edit] Anti-clericalism

The 20th century saw the rise of various politically radical and anti-clerical governments. The 1926 Calles Law separating church and state in Mexico led to the Cristero War^[207] in which over 3,000 priests were exiled or assassinated,^[208] churches desecrated, services mocked, nuns raped and captured priests shot.^[207] In the Soviet Union following the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, persecution of the Church and Catholics continued well into the 1930s.^[209] In addition to the execution and exiling of clerics, monks and laymen, the confiscation of religious implements and closure of churches was common.^[210] During the 1936–39 Spanish Civil War, the Catholic hierarchy supported Francisco Franco's rebel Nationalist forces against the Popular Front government,^[211] citing Republican violence directed against the Church.^[212] The Church had been an active element in the polarising politics of the years preceding the Civil War.^[213] Pope Pius XI referred to these three countries as a "Terrible Triangle" and the failure to protest in Europe and the United States as a Conspiracy of Silence.

[edit] World War II

After violations of the 1933 Reichskonkordat which had guaranteed the Church in Nazi Germany some protection and rights,^[214] Pope Pius XI issued the 1937 encyclical Mit brennender Sorge^[215] which publicly condemned the Nazis' persecution of the Church and their ideology of neopaganism and racial superiority.^[216] After the Second World War began in September 1939, the Church condemned the invasion of Poland and subsequent 1940 Nazi invasions.^[217] In the Holocaust, Pope Pius XII directed the Church hierarchy to help protect Jews from the Nazis.^[218] While Pius XII has been credited with helping to save hundreds of thousands of Jews by some historians,^[219] the Church has also been accused of encouraging centuries of antisemitism^[220] and Pius himself of not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities.^[221] Debate over the validity of these criticisms continues to this day.^[219] In 2000 Pope John Paul II on behalf of all people, apologized to Jews by inserting a prayer at the Western Wall.^[222]^{[not in citation given]}

[edit] Post-Industrial age

[edit] Second Vatican Council

Main article: History of the Catholic Church since 1962

The Catholic Church engaged in a comprehensive process of reform following the Second Vatican Council (1962–65).^[223] Intended as a continuation of Vatican I, under Pope John XXIII the council developed into an engine of modernisation.^[223]^[224] It was tasked with making the historical teachings of the Church clear to a modern world, and made pronouncements on topics including the nature of the church, the mission of the laity and religious freedom.^[223] The council approved a revision of the liturgy and permitted the Latin liturgical rites to use vernacular languages as well as Latin during mass and other sacraments.^[225] Efforts by the Church to improve Christian unity became a priority.^[226] In addition to finding common ground on certain issues with Protestant churches, the Catholic Church has discussed the possibility of unity with the Eastern Orthodox Church.^[227]

[edit] Reforms

Changes to old rites and ceremonies following Vatican II produced a variety of responses. Some stopped going to church, while others tried to preserve the old liturgy with the help of sympathetic priests.^[228] These formed the basis of today's Traditionalist Catholic groups, which believe that the reforms of Vatican II have gone too far. Liberal Catholics form another dissenting group who feel that the Vatican II reforms did not go far enough. The liberal views of theologians such as Hans Küng and Charles Curran, led to Church withdrawal of their authorization to teach as Catholics.^[229] According to Professor Thomas Bokenkotter, most Catholics "accepted the changes more or less gracefully."^[228] In 2007, Benedict XVI eased permission for the optional old Mass to be celebrated upon request by the faithful.^[230]
A new Codex Juris Canonici - Canon Law called for by John XXIII, was promulgated by Pope John Paul II on January 25, 1983. It includes numerous reforms and alterations in Church law and Church discipline for the Latin Church. It replaced the 1917 version issued by Benedict XV.

[edit] Theology

[edit] Modernism

Main article: Modernism (Roman Catholicism)

This section requires expansion.

[edit] Liberation theology

In the 1960s, growing social awareness and politicization in the Latin American Church gave birth to liberation theology. The Peruvian priest, Gustavo Gutiérrez, became it primary proponent^[231] and, in 1979, the bishops' conference in Mexico officially declared the Latin American Church's "preferential option for the poor".^[232] Archbishop Óscar Romero, a supporter of the movement, became the region's most famous contemporary martyr in 1980, when he was murdered while celebrating Mass by forces allied with the government.^[233] Both Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI (as Cardinal Ratzinger) denounced the movement.^[234] The Brazilian theologian Leonardo Boff was twice ordered to cease publishing and teaching.^[235] While Pope John Paul II was criticized for his severity in dealing with proponents of the movement, he maintained that the Church, in its efforts to champion the poor, should not do so by resorting to violence or partisan politics.^[231] The movement is still alive in Latin America today, though the Church now faces the challenge of Pentecostal revival in much of the region.^[236]

[edit] Sexuality and gender issues

The sexual revolution of the 1960s brought challenging issues for the Church. Pope Paul VI's 1968 encyclical Humanae Vitae reaffirmed the Catholic Church's traditional view of marriage and marital relations and asserted a continued proscription of artificial birth control. In addition, the encyclical reaffirmed the sanctity of life from conception to natural death and asserted a continued condemnation of both abortion and euthanasia as grave sins which were equivalent to murder.^[237]^[238]
Efforts to lead the Church to consider the ordination of women led Pope John Paul II to issue two documents to explain Church teaching. Mulieris Dignitatem was issued in 1988 to clarify women's equally important and complementary role in the work of the Church.^[239]^[240] Then in 1994, Ordinatio Sacerdotalis explained that the Church extends ordination only to men in order to follow the example of Jesus, who chose only men for this specific duty.^[241]^[242]^[243]

[edit] Catholic sex abuse scandal

[edit] Catholicism today

Pope Benedict XVI was elected pontiff in 2005

[edit] Benedict XVI

With the election of Pope Benedict XVI in 2005, the Church has so far seen largely a continuation of the policies of his predecessor, John Paul II, with some notable exceptions: Benedict decentralized beatifications and reverted the decision of his predecessor regarding papal elections.^[246] In 2007, he set a Church record by approving the beatification of 498 Spanish Martyrs. His first encyclical Deus Caritas Est discussed love and sex in continued opposition to several other views on sexuality.
Roman Catholic attempts to improve ecumenical relations with the Eastern Orthodox Churches have been complicated by disputes over both doctrine and the recent history of the Orthodox Eastern Catholic Churches, involving the return of expropriatiated properties of the Eastern Catholic Churches, which the Orthodox Church took over after World War II at the request of Joseph Stalin.^[247]

[edit] See also

[edit] Sources

[edit] Notes

^ As examples, Bokenkotter cites that Sunday became a state day of rest, that harsher punishments were given for prostitution and adultery, and that some protections were given to slaves. (Bokenkotter, pp. 41–42.)

[edit] Footnotes

^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, 862 quoted in Franzen
^ The Catholic Church recognizes as legitimate the episcopal consecrations of a number of other churches which do not consider the Pope to have the authority claimed by the Catholic Church. However, it still insists that those churches are obligated to defer to the Primacy of the Roman Pontiff.
^ Hitchcock, Geography of Religion (2004), p. 281, quote: "Some (Christian communities) had been founded by Peter, the disciple Jesus designated as the founder of his church. ... Once the position was institutionalized, historians looked back and recognized Peter as the first pope of the Christian church in Rome"
^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), pp. 11, 14, quote: "The Church was founded by Jesus himself in his earthly lifetime.", "The apostolate was established in Rome, the world's capital when the church was inaugurated; it was there that the universality of the Christian teaching most obviously took its central directive–it was the bishops of Rome who very early on began to receive requests for adjudication on disputed points from other bishops."
^ Temporini, Hildegard; Wolfgang Haase (1982). Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt Principat.: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 480. doi:2008-06-26. ISBN 3110087006. http://books.google.com/?id=kNPV4P5h1qgC&pg=PA480&dq=The+church+was+founded+by+jesus.
^ ^a ^b Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), p. 81
^ Kreeft, p. 980.
^ Bokenkotter, p. 30.
^ Barry, p. 46.
^ Orlandis, p. 11 quote "But Jesus not only founded a religion - Christianity; he founded a Church. ... The Church was grounded on the Apostle Peter to whom Christ promised the primacy - 'and on this rock I will build my Church (Mt16:18)'".
^ Acts 18:1-2; The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Priscilla, St
^ Franzen 26
^ chapter 16
^ "Paul, St" Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
^ Pennington, p. 2
^ St-Paul-Outside-the-Walls homepage
^ Historians debate whether or not the Roman government distinguished between Christians and Jews prior to Nerva's modification of the Fiscus Judaicus in 96. From then on, practising Jews paid the tax, Christians did not. Wylen, Stephen M., The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction, Paulist Press (1995), ISBN 0-8091-3610-4, Pp 190-192.; Dunn, James D.G., Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways, AD 70 to 135, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (1999), ISBN 0-8028-4498-7, Pp 33-34.; Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro & Gargola, Daniel J & Talbert, Richard John Alexander, The Romans: From Village to Empire, Oxford University Press (2004), ISBN 0-19-511875-8, p. 426.;
^ The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Rome (early Christian)
^ "Irenaeus Against Heresies 3.3.2". "...[the] Church founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul; as also [by pointing out] the faith preached to men, which comes down to our time by means of the successions of the bishops. ...The blessed apostles, then, having founded and built up the Church, committed into the hands of Linus the office of the episcopate."
^ Antioch and Rome: New Testament Cradles of Christianity. Paulist Press. 1983. "As for Peter, we have no knowledge at all of when he came to Rome and what he did there before he was martyred. Certainly he was not the original missionary who brought Christianity to Rome (and therefore not the founder of the church of Rome in that sense). There is no serious proof that he was the bishop (or local ecclesiastical officer) of the Roman church--a claim not made till the third century. Most likely he did not spend any major time at Rome before 58 when Paul wrote to the Romans, and so it may have been only in the 60s and relatively shortly before his martyrdom that Peter came to the capital."
^ ^a ^b "In the life of Peter there is no starting point for a chain of succession to the leadership of the church at large." While Cullman believed the Matthew 16:18 text is entirely valid and is in no way spurious, he says it cannot be used as "warrant of the papal succession."— "Religion: Peter & the Rock." Time," December 7, 1953. Time.com Accessed October 8, 2009
^ Cullman, Oscar "In the New Testament [Jerusalem] is the only church of which we hear that Peter stood at its head. Of other episcopates of Peter we know nothing certain. Concerning Antioch, indeed ... there is a tradition, first appearing in the course of the second century, according to which Peter was its bishop. The assertion that he was Bishop of Rome we first find at a much later time. From the second half of the second century we do possess texts that mention the apostolic foundation of Rome, and at this time, which is indeed rather late, this foundation is traced back to Peter and Paul, an assertion that cannot be supported historically. Even here, however, nothing is said as yet of an episcopal office of Peter."
^ Bokenkotter, p. 24.
^ ^a ^b Chadwick, Henry, pp. 23–24.
^ Hitchcock, Geography of Religion (2004), p. 281, quote: "By the year 100, more than 40 Christian communities existed in cities around the Mediterranean, including two in North Africa, at Alexandria and Cyrene, and several in Italy."
^ A.E. Medlycott, India and The Apostle Thomas, pp.1-71, 213-97; M.R. James, Apocryphal New Testament, pp.364-436; Eusebius, History, chapter 4:30; J.N. Farquhar, The Apostle Thomas in North India, chapter 4:30; V.A. Smith, Early History of India, p.235; L.W. Brown, The Indian Christians of St. Thomas, p.49-59
^ http://www.stthoma.com/
^ McMullen, pp. 37, 83.
^ Davidson, The Birth of the Church (2005), p. 115
^ MacCulloch, Christianity, p. 109.
^ ^a ^b Chadwick, Henry, p. 37.
^ Davidson, The Birth of the Church (2005), p. 146
^ Davidson, The Birth of the Church (2005), p. 149
^ MacCulloch, Christianity, pp.127–131.
^ Duffy, pp. 9–10.
^ Markus, p. 75.
^ MacCulloch, Christianity, p. 134.
^ Duffy, p. 18.
^ MacCulloch, Christianity, p. 141.
^ Davidson, The Birth of the Church (2005), pp. 169, 181
^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), pp. 27–8, quote: "A distinguished succession of theological apologists added intellectual authority to the resources at the disposal of the papacy, at just that point in its early development when the absence of a centralized teaching office could have fractured the universal witness to a single body of ideas. At the end of the first century there was St. Clement of Rome, third successor to St. Peter in the see; in the second century there was St. Ignatius of Antioch, St. Irenaeus of Lyons and St. Justin Martyr; in the fourth century St. Augustine of Hippo, the greatest theologian of the Early Church."
^ MacCulloch, Christianity, pp. 155–159, 164.
^ Chadwick, Henry, p. 41.
^ Chadwick, Henry, pp. 41–42, 55.
^ McMullen, p. 33.
^ MacCulloch, Christianity, p. 174.
^ Duffy, p. 20.
^ Simone Weil, Letter to a Priest, Excerpt 35
^ Collins, The Story of Christianity (1999), pp. 58–9
^ Collins, The Story of Christianity (1999), p. 59
^ Weil, Letter to a Priest, excerpt 35
^ McMullen, p. 44.
^ Bokenkotter, p. 41.
^ ^a ^b McMullen, pp. 49–50.
^ Duffy, p. 64.
^ McMullen, p. 54.
^ MacCulloch, Christianity, p. 199.
^ McMullen, p. 93.
^ Duffy, p. 27. Chadwick, Henry, p. 56.
^ Duffy, p. 29. MacCulloch Christianity, p. 212.
^ MacCulloch, Christianity, p. 221.
^ MacCulloch, Christianity, p. 225.
^ Chadwick, Henry, pp. 56–57.
^ Duffy, p. 34.
^ MacCulloch, Christianity, pp. 185, 212.
^ "Lecture 27: Heretics, Heresies and the Church". 2009. Retrieved 2010-04-24. Review of Church policies towards heresy, including capital punishment (see Synod at Saragossa).
^ Collins, The Story of Christianity (1999), pp. 61–2
^ Denzinger 186 in the new numbering, 92 in the old
^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 35
^ ^a ^b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), pp. 84–93
^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (2002), p. 142, Chapter 4 Eastern Christendom by Kallistos Ware
^ Le Goff, Medieval Civilization (1964), pp. 5–20
^ ^a ^b Le Goff, Medieval Civilization (1964), p. 21
^ Woods, How the Church Built Western Civilization (2005), p. 27
^ Le Goff, Medieval Civilization (1964), p. 120
^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 50–2
^ Collins, The Story of Christianity (1999), pp. 84–6
^ Vidmar, Jedin 34
^ ^a ^b Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 63, 74
^ Franzen 35
^ Jedin 36
^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 107–11
^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 78, quote: "By contrast, Paschal's successor Eugenius II (824–7), elected with imperial influence, gave away most of these papal gains. He acknowledged the Emperor's sovereignty in the papal state, and he accepted a constitution imposed by Lothair which established imperial supervision of the administration of Rome, imposed an oath to the Emperor on all citizens, and required the Pope–elect to swear fealty before he could be consecrated. Under Sergius II (844–7) it was even agreed that the Pope could not be consecrated without an imperial mandate, and that the ceremony must be in the presence of his representative, a revival of some of the more galling restrictions of Byzantine rule."
^ Franzen. 36-42
^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 88–9
^ Woods, How the Church Built Western Civilization (2005), p. 40
^ Le Goff, Medieval Civilization (1964), pp. 80–2
^ ^a ^b Woods, How the Church Built Western Civilization (2005), pp. 44–8
^ ^a ^b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), pp. 158–9
^ ^a ^b Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 91
^ Collins, The Story of Christianity (1999), p. 103
^ ^a ^b Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 104
^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 119, 131
^ "Eastern Catholic". Catholic World News. Trinity Communications. 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-30.
^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 278
^ Riley-Smith, The First Crusaders (1997), p. 8
^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 130–1
^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 140 quote: "And so when Urban called for a crusade at Clermont in 1095, one of his motives was to bring help to the beleaguered Eastern Christians."
^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 155 quote: "Stories were also circulating about the harsh treatment of Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem at the hands of the infidel, inflaming Western opinion."
^ Le Goff, Medieval Civilization (1964), pp. 65–7
^ Tyerman, God's War: A New History of the Crusades (2006), pp. 525–60
^ "Pope sorrow over Constantinople". BBC News. 2004-06-29. Retrieved 2008-04-06.
^ ^a ^b Woods, How the Church Built Western Civilization (2005), pp. 119–22
^ ^a ^b Norman, The Roman Catholic Church (2007), p. 62
^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 101
^ Le Goff, Medieval Civilization (1964), p. 87
^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 112
^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 144–7, quote: "The Albigensian Crusade, as it became known, lasted until 1219. The pope, Innocent III, was a lawyer and saw both how easily the crusade had gotten out of hand and how it could be mitigated. He encouraged local rulers to adopt anti-heretic legislation and bring people to trial. By 1231 a papal inquisition began, and the friars were given charge of investigating tribunals."
^ ^a ^b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 132, quote: "A crusade was proclaimed against these Albigenses, as they were sometimes called ... It was in connection with this crusade that the papal system of Inquisition originated-a special tribunal appointed by the Popes and charged with ferreting out heretics. Until then the responsibility devolved on the local bishops. However, Innocent found it necessary in coping with the Albigensian threat to send out delegates who were entrusted with special powers that made them independent of the episcopal authority. In 1233 Gregory IX organized this ad hoc body into a system of permanent inquisitors, who were usually chosen from among the mendicant friars, Dominicans and Franciscans, men who were often marked by a high degree of courage, integrity, prudence, and zeal."
^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), p. 93
^ ^a ^b Black, Early Modern Italy (2001), pp. 200–2
^ Casey, Early Modern Spain: A Social History (2002), pp. 229–30
^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 122
^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (1990), p. 232, Chapter 6 Christian Civilization by Colin Morris (University of Southampton)
^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 155
^ ^a ^b McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (1990), p. 240, Chapter 7 The Late Medieval Church and its Reformation by Patrick Collinson (University of Cambridge)
^ Koschorke, A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America (2007), pp. 13, 283
^ Dussel, Enrique, A History of the Church in Latin America, Wm B Eerdmans Publishing, 1981, pp. 39, 59
^ Woods, How the Church Built Western Civilization (2005), p. 135
^ ^a ^b Johansen, Bruce, The Native Peoples of North America, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, 2006, pp. 109, 110, quote: "In the Americas, the Catholic priest Bartolome de las Casas avidly encouraged enquiries into the Spanish conquest's many cruelties. Las Casas chronicled Spanish brutality against the Native peoples in excruciating detail."
^ ^a ^b ^c Koschorke, A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America (2007), p. 287
^ Dussel, Enrique, A History of the Church in Latin America, Wm B Eerdmans Publishing, 1981, pp. 45, 52, 53 quote: "The missionary Church opposed this state of affairs from the beginning, and nearly everything positive that was done for the benefit of the indigenous peoples resulted from the call and clamor of the missionaries. The fact remained, however, that widespread injustice was extremely difficult to uproot ... Even more important than Bartolome de Las Casas was the Bishop of Nicaragua, Antonio de Valdeviso, who ultimately suffered martyrdom for his defense of the Indian."
^ Woods, How the Church Built Western Civilization (2005), p. 137
^ Chadwick, Owen, The Reformation, Penguin, 1990, p. 327
^ Koschorke, A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America (2007), p. 21
^ Johansen, Bruce, The Native Peoples of North America, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, 2006, p. 110, quote: "In the Papal bull Sublimis deus (1537), Pope Paul III declared that Indians were to be regarded as fully human, and that their souls were as immortal as those of Europeans. This edict also outlawed slavery of Indians in any form ..."
^ Koschorke, A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America (2007), p. 290
^ Samora et al., A History of the Mexican-American People (1993), p. 20
^ Jackson, From Savages to Subjects: Missions in the History of the American Southwest (2000), p. 14
^ Jackson, From Savages to Subjects: Missions in the History of the American Southwest (2000), p. 13
^ Koschorke, A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America (2007), pp. 3, 17
^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 133
^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), p. 86
^ ^a ^b Franzen 65-78
^ ^a ^b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), pp. 201–5
^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 149
^ ^a ^b Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 184
^ ^a ^b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 215
^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 196–200
^ ^a ^b Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 233
^ ^a ^b Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 177–8
^ Scruton, A Dictionary of Political Thought (1996), p. 470, quote: "The (English) Reformation must not be confused with the changes introduced into the Church of England during the 'Reformation Parliament' of 1529–36, which were of a political rather than a religious nature, designed to unite the secular and religious sources of authority within a single sovereign power: the Anglican Church did not until later make any substantial change in doctrine."
^ Schama, A History of Britain 1: At the Edge of the World? (2003), pp. 309–11
^ ^a ^b Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 220, quote: "Henry, seeing how far Cranmer had tried to take him in making the land Lutheran or Calvinist, pulled the plug in September 1538 and passed the Six Articles, which tried to restore the ancient faith, including the practice of celibacy for the clergy. By 1543 most of the Reformation legislation was reversed. One man, John Lambert, was made an example in November 1538. He was burned by being dragged in and out of the fire for holding the very same beliefs about the Eucharist that Cranmer held. Cranmer was made to watch the whole brutal event. He also had to send his wife back to Germany."
^ Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, Volume 2 (1985), p. 75, quote: "In England, he took steps to make the church conform as much as possible to Roman Catholicism, except in the matter of obedience to the pope. He also refused to restore monasteries, which he had suppressed and confiscated under the pretense of reformation, and whose properties he had no intention of returning."
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 225–6
^ Haigh, The English Reformation Revised (1987), p. 159, quote: "Mary wanted to make England a Catholic country as quickly as possible: to reintroduce the pope's authority, to repeal those parliamentary statutes which had so radically altered the relationship of Church and State and to restore to the Church its Catholic doctrine and services. Nothing was to be allowed to stand in her way. No murmurings among the people, no riots or rebellions or intrigues, not even the advice of the Spanish ambassador to make haste slowly could deflect the Queen from her purpose. ... Death by burning at the hands of the sheriffs became the penalty for those who, convicted of heresy in the church courts, refused to recant."
^ Solt, Church and State in Early Modern England, 1509-1640, (1990), p. 149
^ Schama, A History of Britain 1: At the Edge of the World? (2003), pp. 272–3.
^ Jackson, Ireland Her Own (1991), p. 514
^ ^a ^b Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), pp. 131–2
^ Potemra, Michael (2004-07-13). "Crucible of Freedom". National Review. Retrieved 2008-06-21.
^ ^a ^b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), pp. 242–4
^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 237
^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), pp. 91–2
^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 251
^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 241
^ Murray, Dictionary of the Arts (1994), p. 45
^ ^a ^b Koschorke, A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America (2007), pp. 31–2
^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (1990), p. 318, Chapter 9 The Expansion of Christianity by John McManners
^ Otto Stegmüller, Barock, in Marienkunde, 1967 566
^ F Zöpfl, Barocke Frömmigkeit, in Marienkunde, 577
^ Zöpfl 579
^ Lortz, IV, 7-11
^ Duffy 188-189
^ ^a ^b Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 188–91
^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), pp. 267–9
^ Franzen 326
^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), p. 137
^ ^a ^b Franzen 328
^ Franzen, 362
^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), pp. 111–2
^ King, Mission to Paradise (1975), p. 169
^ Franzen 362
^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 221
^ Franzen, 323
^ ^a ^b Franzen, Papstgeschichte, 325
^ Franzen 323
^ ^a ^b Franzen 324
^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (1990), p. 328, Chapter 9 The Expansion of Christianity by John McManners
^ ^a ^b Franzen 325
^ ^a ^b Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 193
^ Ludwig von Pastor, Geschichte der Päpste, Vol XVI,I Herder Verlag Freiburg,1961
^ Von Pastor 339
^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 295
^ Edward, The Cambridge Modern History (1908), p. 25
^ ^a ^b ^c Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), pp. 283–5
^ Collins, The Story of Christianity (1999), p. 176
^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 214–6
^ Hastings, pp. 397–410
^ John Paul II, General Audience, March 24, 1993
^ Pius IX in Bäumer, 245
^ and to add the Immaculata to the Litany of Loreto.
^ Bauer 566
^ Civilta Catolica February 6, 1869.
^ Leith, Creeds of the Churches (1963), p. 143
^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 232
^ Fahlbusch, The Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001), p. 729
^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 240
^ Duffy 260
^ Franzen, 368
^ Felictity O'Brien, Pius XII, London 2000, p.13
^ Mystici Corporis, Lumen Gentium and Redemptoris Mater provide a modern Catholic understanding of this link.
^ see Pius XII,Mystici corporis, also John Paul II in Redemptoris Mater: The Second Vatican Council, by presenting Mary in the mystery of Christ, also finds the path to a deeper understanding of the mystery of the Church. Mary, as the Mother of Christ, is in a particular way united with the Church, "which the Lord established as his own body."
^ Baumann in Marienkunde 1163
^ ^ Baumann in Marienkunde, 672
^ ^a ^b Chadwick, Owen, pp. 264–265.
^ Scheina, p. 33.
^ Riasanovsky 617
^ Riasanovsky 634
^ Payne, Stanley G (2008). Franco and Hitler: Spain, Germany and World War II.. Yale University Press. p. 13. ISBN 0300122829.
^ Fernandez-Alonso, J (2002). The New Catholic Encyclopedia. 13. Catholic University Press/Thomas Gale. pp. 395–396. ISBN 0-7876-4017-4.
^ Mary Vincent, Catholicism in the Second Spanish Republic ISBN 0-19-820613-5 p.218
^ Rhodes, p. 182-183
^ Rhodes, p. 197
^ Rhodes, p. 204-205
^ Cook, p. 983
^ Bokenkotter p. 192
^ ^a ^b Deák, p. 182.
^ Eakin, Emily (1 September 2001). "New Accusations Of a Vatican Role In Anti-Semitism; Battle Lines Were Drawn After Beatification of Pope Pius IX". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 March 2008.
^ Phayer, pp. 50–57
^ Randall, Gene (26 March 2000). "Pope Ends Pilgrimage to the Holy Land". CNN. Retrieved 9 June 2008.
^ ^a ^b ^c Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 270–6
^ J. Derek Holmes and Bernard W. Bickers, A Short History of the Catholic Church
^ Paul VI, Pope (1963-12-04). "Sacrosanctum Concilium". Vatican. Retrieved 2008-02-09.
^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 274
^ "Roman Catholic-Eastern Orthodox Dialogue". Public Broadcasting Service. 2000-07-14. Retrieved 2008-02-16.
^ ^a ^b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 410
^ Bauckham, Richard, in New Dictionary of Theology, Ed. Ferguson, (1988), p. 373
^ Apostolic Letter "Motu Proprio data" Summorum Pontificum on the use of the Roman Liturgy prior to the reform of 1970 (July 7, 2007)
^ ^a ^b "Liberation Theology". BBC. 2005. Retrieved 2008-06-02.
^ Aguilar, Mario (2007). The History and Politics of Latin American Theology, Volume 1. London: SCM Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0334040231.
^ For more on Romero, by a former colleague, see Sobrino, Jon (1990). Archbishop Romero: Memories and Reflections. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. ISBN 978-0883446676.
^ Rohter, Larry (2007-05-07). "As Pope Heads to Brazil, a Rival Theology Persists". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-02-21. Benedict's main involvement in dealing with liberation theology was while he was still Cardinal Ratzinger.
^ Aguilar, Mario (2007). The History and Politics of Latin American Theology, Volume 1. London: SCM Press. p. 121. ISBN 978-0334040231.
^ For liberation theology's persistence, see Rohter, Larry (2007-05-07). "As Pope Heads to Brazil, a Rival Theology Persists". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-06-02. For the threat from Pentecostalism, see Stoll, David (1990). Is Latin America turning Protestant?: The Politics of Evangelical Growth. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520064997.
^ Paul VI, Pope (1968). "Humanae Vitae". Vatican. Retrieved 2008-02-02.
^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), p. 184
^ John Paul II, Pope (1988). "Mulieris Dignitatem". Vatican. Retrieved 2008-02-21.
^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 467
^ Pope Benedict XVI, Jesus of Nazareth (2008), pp. 180–1, quote: "The difference between the discipleship of the Twelve and the discipleship of the women is obvious; the tasks assigned to each group are quite different. Yet Luke makes clear—and the other Gospels also show this in all sorts of ways—that 'many' women belonged to the more intimate community of believers and that their faith—filled following of Jesus was an essential element of that community, as would be vividly illustrated at the foot of the Cross and the Resurrection."
^ John Paul II, Pope (1994-05-22). "Apostolic Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on Reserving Priestly Ordination to Men Alone". Vatican. Retrieved 2008-02-02.
^ Cowell, Alan (1994-05-31). "Pope Rules Out Debate On Making Women Priests". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-02-12.
^ ^a ^b Bruni, A Gospel of Shame (2002), p. 336
^ Newman, Andy (2006-08-31). "A Choice for New York Priests in Abuse Cases". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-03-13.
^ Moto Proprio, De Aliquibus Mutationibus, June 11, 2007
^ Foodnote to be added

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